2014-2019年中国数字电视机顶盒市场监测与投资趋势研究报告 13页

Toilets(Socialaspects)Genderequality(Analysis)Feminism(Analysis)Defecation(Socialaspects)Socialjustice(Analysis)Author:Plaskow,JudithPubDate:03/22/2008Publication:Name: Cross Currents Publisher: Association for Religion and Intellectual Life Audience: Professional Format: NewsletterSubject: Education Copyright: COPYRIGHT 2008 Association for Religion and Intellectual Life ISSN: 0011-1953Issue:Date: Spring,2008 SourceVolume: 58 SourceIssue: 1Topic:Event Code: 290PublicaffairsGeographic:Geographic Scope: UnitedKingdom Geographic Code: 4EUUKUnitedKingdomRevaluingthebody,andespeciallythefemalebody,hasbeencentraltothefeministproject.OneneedonlythinkofthesignificanceandsuccessofOurBodiesOurselvesanditssequelstoappreciatetheextenttowhichreclaimingwomen"scolonizedbodyspacehasplayedavitalroleinfeministtheoryandactivism.Inreligiousstudies,feministshavewrittenextensivelyaboutdisparagementofthebodyandsexualityandidentificationofwomenwiththebodyinWesternthought.FromRosemaryRadfordRuether"sexplorationsofdualisminclassicalandChristianculturewrittenintheearly1970stoMargaretFarley"sJustlovepublishedin2006,historians,ethicists,theologians,andothershavebothcritiquedinfluentialcanonicaltextsandattemptedtoformulatealternative,appreciative,andnon-dualisticunderstandingsofsexualityandhumanembodiment.Itisinteresting,therefore,thatinfortyyearsoffeministtheorizingaboutthebody,eliminationasafundamentalaspectofbodyexperiencehasbeenlargelyignored.Foucaultmayberightthatforthelastthreecenturies,"sexhasbecomesomethingtosay,andtosayexhaustively,"butexcretionseemstobeconsignedtotheshadows.(1)InthewordsofNormanO.Brown,"Repressionweighsmoreheavilyonanalitythangenitality."(2)Inthisessay,Iseektoremedytheneglectofeliminationbyoutlininganewprojectonembodiment,elimination,andtheroleoftoiletsinstrugglesforsocialjustice.Theprojecthastwostrandsthatare deeplyinterconnected.Thefirstlooksatthewaysinwhichaccesstotoiletsisaprerequisiteforfullpublicparticipationandcitizenship.Thedistribution,quality,andstructureofpublictoiletsarebothsymbolsandconcreterepresentationsofalargersystemofsocialhierarchies.AlmostallthesocialjusticemovementsofthelastcenturyintheUnitedStateshaveincludedstrugglesforadequatetoiletfacilitiesasanatleastimplicitpartoftheiragendas:thecivilrightsmovement,feminism,disabilityrights,andrightsfortransgenderpersons.Inaddition,anabsenceoftoiletsisamajorproblemforhomelesspersonsandisapressinghealthissueinthetwo-thirdsworld.Howdoeslookingattoiletshelpustomappowerrelationsinoursocietyandglobally?Whatlocalbattleshavebeenfoughtovertoiletequity?Thesecondstrandoftheprojectinvolvesreflectingoneliminationasanaspectofhumanembodiment.Whytherelativesilencearoundthisissueevenamongscholarswhohavewrittenextensivelyaboutthebody?Whatdoesourneedforexcretionsayaboutusasembodiedpersons?Howhaveattitudesandpracticesaroundexcretionchangedovertime?Whatwoulditmeanforfeministstoreclaimexcretioninthewaywehavereclaimedsexuality?Whatwouldsanitaryfacilitieslooklikeinaworldinwhichpeoplewerebothcomfortablewiththisaspectofembodimentandcommittedtoenablingamaximumnumberofpersonstoparticipatefullyinpubliclife?Thetopicoftoiletsisintriguingpartlybecauseitprovidesavehicleforexploringmanyintersectingissues:bathroomdesignanddistributioncanperpetuateawiderangeofsocialinequalities,andbathroomactivismhasthepotentialtobringtogetherverydiverseinterestgroups.(3)Inthispaper,IwillfocusonsomefeministissuessurroundingbathroomsintheWesternculturalcontextasaninstanceofthebroaderproblemoftoiletsandsocialjustice.Sometimestheabsenceofwomen"slavatoriessoclearlyreflectstheexclusionofwomenfrompublicpowerandpublicspacethatitleavesonealmostdumbfounded.TherewasnorestroomforwomensenatorsneartheSenatefloor,forexample,until1992,whenthenumberofwomenintheSenatewentfromtwotoseven.Beforethen,BarbaraMikulskiandNancyKassebaumeitherhadtogoupafloortotheirofficesorusethepublicrestroomsdownstairs.WomenintheHouseofRepresentativeshaveaposhrestroom.Unlikethemen"sroom,however,whichisjustafewfeetfromtheHousechamber,itisaccessedbytraversingahallwheretouristsgatherorgoingthroughtheminorityleader"sofficeandthenwindingdownalongcorridor.(4)Ontheonehand,separateCongressionalrestroomfacilitiesthemselvesreflectthestatusandpowerdifferencesbetweenelectedofficialsandconstituents.Ontheotherhand,asonerecentlyelectedCongresswomanputit, "We"retalkingaboutthetimeittakeseachofustohandleourbusinessandgetbacktobusiness."(5)Notonlydoestheabsenceofwomen"sbathroomssignifytheexclusionofwomenfromcertainprofessionsandhallsofpower,butitalsohasfunctionedasanexplicitargumentagainsthiringwomenoradmittingthemintopreviouslyall-maleorganizations.InstitutionsasdiverseasYaleMedicalSchool,HarvardLawSchool,andtheBronxandBrooklynBarAssociationshaveclaimedthattheywereunabletoletinwomenbecausenorestroomfacilitieswereavailableforthem.(6)TheVirginiaMilitaryInstitutemadethesameargumentasrecentlyas1996.(7)Theseobviousandegregiousexamplesofhowadearthoftoiletsreflectsandperpetuatessocialinequalityareonacontinuumwiththeinconveniencesandhumiliationsthatmanywomenexperienceeveryday.Howmanywomenhavemissedpartsofmeetingsorevents--orhavestoodwiththeirlegscrossedandbreathingdeeply--becausetheywereonendlessbathroomlineswhilemenzippedinandoutofmen"srooms?Sometimes,especiallyinagingbuildings,thediscrepancybetweenmaleandfemalelavatoryspaceseemstoreflectdeliberatediscrimination.OntheballroomflooroftheNewYorkHilton,forexample,thewomen"sroomhasfourstallswhiletheadjoiningmen"sroomhassixstallsandsixurinals.Sometimes,women"sandmen"sroomsareallottedequalfloorspacebut,becauseurinalstakeuplessroomthanstalls,menstillhavemorefixtures.Othertimes,men"sandwomen"sroomsmayevenhaveanequalnumberofcombinedstallsand/orurinals,butthisstillfailstotakeaccountofthefactthatwomenneedmoretoiletsthanmenforbothsocialandphysiologicalreasons.Indeed,thequestionofwhatconstitutesbathroomequityraisesacentralfeministissue:whendoesapparentequalityconstituteinequitybecausewomen"sneedsaredifferentfromthoseofmen?Bothculturalandphysiologicalfactorsleadwomentospendmoretimeinthebathroomthanmendo.Tostartwith,theytakeroughlytwiceaslongtourinate.Thisisnotbecausewomenpreenthemselvesinfrontofmirrorsasissometimesclaimed,butbecauseclosingacubicle,adjustingclothing,sitting,usingtoiletpaper,andthenadjustingclothingagaintakeslongerthanstandingataurinal.Otherculturalfactorsalsoextendwomen"sbathroomtime.Womenoftenhaveprimaryresponsibilityfortakingchildrentothetoiletandmaybecalledontoassisttheelderlyanddisabled.Sometimesatabooonbreastfeedinginpublicplacesleadswomentousetoiletstobreastfeed,anactivitythattakessignificanttimeandreducesthenumberofavailablestalls.Moreover,therearemanyphysicalreasonswhy,onaverage,womenusethe toiletmorefrequentlythanmen.Aboutaquarterofadultwomenaremenstruatingatanygivenmoment,whichincreasesboththeirneedfortoiletsandthetimespentinastall.(8)Urinarytractinfectionsaretwiceascommoninwomenasinmen,withabout20percentofwomenexperiencinginfectionatsomepointintheirlives.Interstitialcystitis,achronicinflammationofthebladderwall,which,likeurinarytractinfections,increasesbothurinaryfrequencyandthesenseofurgency,isfarmorecommoninwomen.Pregnancyalsocontributestowomen"sneedformorebathrooms:inearlypregnancy,hormonalchangesincreasetheneedtourinate,whileinlatepregnancy,theuteruspressesonthebladder,reducingitscapacity.Urinarytractinfectionsarealsomorecommonduringpregnancy,andvaginaldeliverycandamagethepelvicfloormuscles,leadingtolifelongbladderproblems.Thirtypercentofwomenbetweentheagesoffifteenandsixty-fourmaysufferfromsomeformofurinaryincontinence,asopposedtobetween1.5and5percentofmen.(9)PartofwhatIfindintriguingandworthyofreflectioninthefactthatwomendailyconfrontbuiltspacesbasedontheneedsofhealthymalebodies,istheextenttowhichwomengrumbleaboutbutalsoacceptthisreality,andtheissuehasnotmadeitontothefeministagenda.Womenonlongbathroomlinesfrequentlycomplainandcommentonthesadrealitythatmendesignbathrooms,butasidefromoccasionallystormingamen"sroomwhenthesituationbecomesimpossible,werarelydoanythingaboutit.Wedonotcomplaintomanagement,boycottorpicketinstitutionsthathaveaninsultingnumberofstalls,ororganizeletter-writingcampaigns.Feministshavenotsystematicallyattendedtobuiltspaceasarealitythatactivelyshapesidentityandpowerrelationsinthewaythatwehaveattendedtoissuesoflanguage.(10)Justaslanguageisnotaneutraltoolforcommunicationbutreflectsandreinforcesgender,race,andclassinequalities,sothosewiththepowertodefineasociety"ssymbolicuniversealsohavethepowertocreatebuiltworldsthatrepresentandpromulgatetheirbeliefsandpriorities.InthewordsoffeministarchitectLeslieWeisman,"...theappropriationofspaceisapoliticalact,...accesstospaceisfundamentallyrelatedtosocialstatusandpower,and...changingtheallocationofspaceisinherentlyrelatedtochangingsociety."(11)Icertainlydonotwanttodenythemanylocalactionsthathavebeenfoughtonbehalfoftoiletequity.WhenIstartedgraduateschoolatYale,therewerenowomen"sbathroomsintheDivinitySchoolLibrary;womenhadtogotoaneighboringbuildingtofindatoilet.Myfirstactasafeministwastojoinwithother femalegraduatestudentsintakingoverthemen"sroominthelibrarystacks,plantingflowersintheurinal,andproclaimingthefacilityunisex.AsIhavetalkedwithpeopleaboutbathroomallocation,Ihaveheardmanysimilarstoriesofprotestsatparticularinstitutions,someincludingpee-insorwomengoingnakedintothedean"soffice.(12)Butwhat"sinterestingabouttheseactionsisthattheyneedtobeferretedout.Theyarenotanestablishedpartoffeministlore,viewedassuccessfullocalinstancesofabroadercampaignofaction.Numerousstateshavenowpassedso-called"pottyparitylaws"thatrequireneworrenovatedbuildingstoprovidewomenwithequalaccesstobathroomspace.Whilesometimes(asinthecaseofNewYork)theselawshavebeenproposedbyfemalelegislators,inanumberofcasestheywereproposedbymenwhowereinfuriatedathavingtowaitridiculouslengthsoftimeforwives,girlfriends,anddaughterstocomeoutofpublicrestrooms,andwho,unlikethewomen,wentanddidsomethingaboutit.(13)Lackofsustainedattentiontobathroomequityconstitutesamissedopportunity.Thisisanissuewithpotentiallywideappealthatcanserveasastartingpointforunderstandingsystemicinequalitiesofpowerandthatisalsoafruitfulsubjectforfeministanalysis.Itprovidesanexcellentcasestudyforexploringproblemsofequalityanddifferenceandwhetherequalprotectionunderthelawrequiresequalspace,equalaccess,orequalityofresults.(14)Also,asbathroomsareoneofthefewgender-segregatedspacesinoursocietythatarelargelytakenforgranted,theyhaveagreatdealtoteachaboutthesocialconstructionofgender.(15)Toiletdesignanddistributionbothreflectandenforceculturalgendernorms--afactmadeclear,forexample,bythepresenceofdiaperchangingtablesinwomen"srestroomsbutnotmen"s.Moreover,women"swillingnesstowaitonlineoffersimportantinsightsintotheprocessoffemalesocialization.NewYorkCityCouncilwomanYvetteClark,whosponsoredtheBathroomEquityBill,pointsoutthat"There"saconditioningthathappenstoyoungwomenandchildrenbecausepeoplejustaccept[waitinginlineforthebathroom]asjustthewayitis."(16)Beyondthis,bathroomsprovideafocusforexploringintersectionsamongandconflictsandpossiblealliancesbetweendifferentsocialmovements.Bathroomaccesshasbeenamajorissuefortransgenderactivistswhoseneedforbathroomspaceposesachallengetocontinuedgendersegregation.Doessuchsegregationserveanylegitimatefunction?Howcanthedesireofsomewomenfortheprivacyandsafetytheyassociatewithwomen-onlyspacebereconciledwiththeneedoftransgenderpersonsforsafeandaccessiblerestrooms?(17)Howdotheinterestsoftransgenderactivistsintersectwiththoseofmenaccompanying femalechildrenordisabledwomentothetoilet,orofwomenaidingadultmen?Itmaybethatthesuccessoftheanti-ERAmovementinusingthespecterofunisexbathroomsasawedgeissueinfightingtheEqualRightsAmendmenthasmadefeministsgun-shyaboutraisingproblemsofbathroomaccess.ButIsuspectthatavoidanceofthisissueisfarmorecomplexlyover-determined,andisconnectedtothesecondstrandofmyproject:namelyattitudestowardembodiment.Ourcurrentnegativeattitudestowardexcretionandthesilenceandembarrassmentthetopicevokesaretheresultsofcomplexhistoricalprocessesthatinvolvedbothsocial-culturalandmedical-scientifictransformations.TherewasneveraperiodinWesternhistorywhenpeoplewereentirelyunconcernedaboutwaste.Thebiblicalinjunctiontodesignateaplacefordefecationoutsidethe(military)campandtodigholestocoverupexcrementreflectsconcernsaboutdirtandcleanlinessthatcontinuetoshapeattitudestowardelimination.(18)Yetatthesametime,urinationanddefecationwereformanycenturiespubliclyvisibleandtaken-for-grantedaspectsofdailylifeinawayverydifferentfromtoday.InMedievalEurope,forexample,therewasnotthesamecompulsiontoward,orindeed,possibilityof,privacythatissoimportantincontemporarysociety.(19).Thesmellsandpresenceofexcrementpervadedtheenvironment:thewallsofhouseswerestainedwithurine;peoplerelievedthemselvesinthestreets;latrineswereeverywhere,neardoorways,stairs,andkitchens(20).AsixteenthcenturyEuropeanCourtRegulationthatadjuresgentlemannottorelievethemselvesinfrontofladiesorbeforethedoorsandwindowsofcourtchamberssuggeststhatanimperativetowardshamedevelopedgraduallyandinparticularhistoricalcontexts.(21).InFrance,forinstance,thesecondhalfoftheeighteenthcenturysawanewsensitivitytosmellthatwaslinkedtoanxietiesabouttheprecariousnessoforganiclifeandanewinterestinpublicsanitationpolicies.(22).Inroughlythesameperiod,anewsetofunderstandingsandpracticesaroundexcretionemergedamongthebourgeoisiethattheyusedtodifferentiatethemselvesfromtheproletariat.Whilethebourgeoisieperceivedtheproletariatasdirtyanddisgusting,embeddedinnatural,bodilyprocesses,theysawthemselvesasabletotranscendtheinferiornaturalworldbydenyingandhidingtheneedforexcretion.Increasingsocialpressuretomakedefecationprivateandinvisiblewascorrelatedwithanewreluctanceeventospeakabouteliminationandtouseeuphemismswhenthesubjectcouldnotbeavoidedaltogether.Theavailabilityofflushtoiletsattheendoftheeighteenthcenturyandthecreationoflarge-scalesewersystemsinthenineteenthallowedforthewiderdisseminationofthissetofattitudesandfortheradicaldisassociationoftheselfanditsexcreta characteristicofthecontemporaryperiod.Thefactthat,atthetouchofahandle,wecanhaveoururineandfeceswhiskedawayasiftheyneverexistedpermitsustodivorceourselvesfromthemessy,excretingbody.(24).NorbertElias,inhismagisterialtwo-volumeworkonTheCivilizingProcess,arguesthat"growingup"inWesternsocietymeansbeingsubjectedonanindividualleveltoacivilizingprocessanalogoustoonethattookplaceinEuropeoverseveralhundredyears.(25)AsFreudpointsout,thedesiretogetridofexcretaisalearnedresponse;itisnotsharedbychildren,whoareoftenfascinatedbyfecesandothersecretionsoftheirownbodiesandwhocangetmanydifferentkindsofpleasurefromthem.Itistoilettrainingthat,inourearliestyears,teachesustorepressthesefeelingsandtorespondtofeceswithdeepdisgustandshame.(26)Eliassuggeststhatthedegreeofinstinctualcontrolexpectedofadultsinthemedievalperiodwasnotmuchgreaterthanwhatwenowexpectofchildren.ButasEuropeansocietiesbecamemoreurban,asthesightsandsmellsofexcretabecamemoreoverpowering,andasthesocialfabricgrewmoreintricate,individualsweresubjectedtoincreasingpressurestocontroltheirinstinctualurgesanddistancethemselvesfromphysiologicalprocesses.Inadevelopmentcomparabletochildren"sinternalizationofparentaldemands,constraintbyothersgavewaytoselfconstraint,andtherulesofcivilizationweregraduallyinternalized.(27)Becausetheimageofthebodyasclean,withoutapertures,andnotneedingtoexcretestandsinobviouscontradictiontoauniversalphysiologicalneed,contemporarysocietiesdemandthatindividualscarefullymonitorthemselvestomeetstrictstandardsofproprietyanddecorum.AsErvingGoffmanpointsoutinhisextensiveworkonself-presentationindailylife,thereisalargediscrepancybetweenoursocializedandourall-too-humanselves.Socialactivityisnotallowedtofollowthetrailofourbodilystates,sothatitisrare,forexample,forsomeonetoverbalizeadesperateneedforatoilet,asopposedtothenumberoftimewemightactuallyfeelthatway.(28)Thebathroomisoneofthe"backstage"areasofcontemporaryexistencewherewecandisarrangeandreassembleourpersonalfrontsandthenmagicallyreappearandpresentourselvesintacttoothers.Toiletdoorshavelocksbecauseeliminationisanactivityperceivedasinconsistentwiththecleanlinessandpuritythatareanexpectedpartofpublicperformance.Infunctioningasaudienceforothers"performances,wearehappytoassistthemwithimpressionmanagementbecausewesharetheirstakeinmaintainingcertainfictions.(29)Wetreattoiletstalls,forinstance,asiftheycutoffcommunicationmorethantheyactuallydo.Wegenerallyignorethesoundsandsmellsthatemanatefromthem,honoringtheirusers"righttoprivacy.(30)Thewiderangeofeuphemismsusedtoavoidingnamingthetoiletandthevariedstrategiesemployedtodisguisethefactoneisheadedtherealsofunctiontocoverovertherealityofeliminationasanintegralpartofdailylife.MaryDouglashelpstocompletethispictureofwhyitshouldbesodifficulttoraiseissuesofbathroomaccessbydiscussingthewaysinwhichthebodyprovidesasystemofsymbolsthatrepresentthe membersofsocietyandtheirobligationstothewhole.Themorecomplexasocialsystemandthestrongerthepressuretopreserveitsboundaries,shesays,"themoresocialintercoursepretendstotakeplacebetweendisembodiedspirits."Incomplexsocieties,individualsareexpectedtomaintainbodilycontrol;bodilyprocessesareignoredandbannedfrompublicdiscussion;andanyevidenceoforganicprocesses,suchasburpingorfarting,isoutlawedfromdignifiedsocialoccasions.Moreover,thehigherpeopleareonthesocialladder,themoretheyareunderpressuretoactasiftheyaredisembodied.Thehierarchyofthepartsofthebody,suchasbrainoveranus,isusedtoexpresssocialhierarchy,withthemarginalmembersofsocietybeingmorecloselyassociatedwithsmellyandmessybodyorifices.Thatiswhyrefinedindividualsshouldneversmacktheirlipswheneating,andaCEOcannotbeseenstandingataurinalnexttohisemployees.Urine,feces,blood,spit,vomit,andmilk,alltraversetheboundariesofthebodyandthusrepresentitsdangerousvulnerability,symbolizingthevulnerabilityofthesocialorder.(31)NoneofthetheoristsIhavementionedengagesinseriousgenderanalysis,andyetitisnotdifficulttoseethatthesubjectofeliminationisdeeplygendered.Howevermuchaparticularsocietymayrelegateeliminationtothebackstage,womenareindeliblylinkedtothatback-stagebehavior.Infantscomeintotheworld"betweenurineandfeces,"(32)andmothersofinfantsandyoungchildrenaregenerallyinconstantcontactwithboththesesubstances.Notforthemthepretensethatbodiesdonotexcreteorthatfecescanbewhiskedaway.Excretaareamajorpresenceintheirlives,andthetextureandqualityofinfantfecesisanendlesslyfascinatingtopicofconversationamongnewmothers.Womenarealsousuallyinchargeoftoilettraining,sotheyaretheagentsofthecivilizingprocesswithitsdemandsfororderandcleanliness.Fromtheinfant"spointofview,itsummonsthemotherthroughfeces.(33)Later,sheistheonetowhomitpresentsitsfirstgift,thegiftofapartofthebodyitwillofferupinexchangeforhersmileoroutoffearofheranger.(34)Attheotherendoflife,itiswomenwhomostoftencarefortheelderly,whohelpthemtothebathroomorcleanuptheiraccidentsorchangetheiradultdiapers.Wemightsaythatwomenaremarkedbyfecesinwaysthatarereinforcedbytheuncontrollabilityoftheirownleakybodies.AsElizabethGroszpointsout,theonsetofmenstruationsignalsthebeginningofanout-of-controlstatusforwomenthatwassupposedtohaveendedwithchildhood.Soilingoneselfwithbodilydischargesisanormalconditionofinfancybutbrandswomenasoccupyingaborderbetweenchildhoodandadulthood,nature,andculture.Women"sbodieshavebeenconstructedasuncontrollable,formless,flowing,secreting,andviscous.(35)Paradoxically,however,theculturalviewofwomen"sbodiesasleaking,flowing,andoutofcontrolhasnotledtothecreationofmorerestroomsforwomenwheretheycantaketheirbleeding,peeing,andnursingselves!Onthecontrary,likeothermarginalizedgroupsassociatedwiththebody--peoplewithdisabilities,transgenderpeople,andhomelesspeople--womenhavelessaccesstotoiletspacewheretheycanfulfilltheirphysicalneeds.Onegroupofsociologiststhathasstudiedbathroombehaviorsuggeststhatallowingpeopletheshieldoftoiletstallstoperformwhataresociallyregardedas"potentiallydiscreditingacts"isawayacknowledging"thesmallpatrimonyofsacredness"towhicheveryindividualisentitled.(36)Onthisview,forcingwomenandothermarginalizedpeopletowaitinlonglines;torefrainfromeliminationforhours,riskingurinarytrackinfectionsandotherphysicalproblems;ortourinateinthestreet,ispreciselytodenythemthat"smallpatrimonyofsacredness."Inasocietythatdoesallthatitcantohideanddenytheexcretingbody,differentialaccesstobathroomsisaboutmorethandifferentialaccesstopowerandpublicspace.Itisalsoabouttheprivilegeofmaintainingthepublic appearanceofbeingdisembodied--aprivilegegrantedmainlytoyoung,able-bodiedmen,whocanlargelytakeforgrantedthatsomebathroomwillbereadilyavailablewhenitisneeded,andthatanygivenbathroomwillmeettheirneeds.(37)Thus,wemightsaythatfeministavoidanceofthesubjectofeliminationandissuesofbathroomequityisaproductofthesamecomplexofsymbolicandsocialmeaningsthatdenieswomenequaltoiletspaceinthefirstplace.Butthenthereasonsforfeministsilenceaboutthesetopicsarethesamereasonstobreakthissilence.First,howevereffectiveoursocietymaybeatgettingexcretatoquicklydisappearandcoveringovertherealitythatourbodiesproducethem,theneedtoeliminatewasteisabasicpartofwhatitmeanstobehuman.Urinationanddefecation,alongwithsweating,farting,bleeding,andvomiting,remindusthatallbodiesleakandtransgressboundaries.(38)Iffeministsareseriousaboutreclaimingthebody,thenweneedaccountsofcorporealitythatgrapplewiththoseaspectsofitthatwehavebeentaughttofindshamefulandrepellent.Second,exploringthesubjectofeliminationforcesusintoacertainrealismaboutthematerialityofthebodyandbodilybasisofthesocialorderandsocialaction.(39)Eventhemostavidsocialconstructionist,afterall,musteventuallygetupfromherorhisdesktodo"whatonlythedeadfindunnecessary."Eliminationthusprovidesanidealstartingpointforanalyzingthecomplexintersectionsbetweenthedemandsoftheorganicbody,andthewaysinwhichtheyareshapedandconstrainedbythebuiltenvironment,andculturallyandsymbolicallyelaboratedinrelationtohierarchiesofgender,sexuality,race,class,andphysicalability.(40)Third,bathroomsprovideafocusforexploringintersections,conflicts,andpossiblealliancesamongarangeofsocialmovements.Preciselybecauseeliminationofwasteisbothauniversalhumanneedandanintrinsicpartofeverydayexperience,itisalsoagoodplacetostartrecognizingandprovidingforarangeofhumandifferences.(41)AtvariouspointsinU.S.history,theabsenceoftoiletfacilitieshassignaledtoblacks,towomen,toworkers,topeoplewithdisabilities,totransgenderpeople,andtohomelesspeoplethattheyareoutsiderstothebodypoliticandthatthereisnoroomfortheminpublicspace.Byaddressingthemultiplewaysinwhichtheinequalitiesofpowerthatshapeoursocialrelationsmanifestthemselvesinthemundanebutcrucialissueofbathroomaccess,bathroomactivistscanforgeamulti-identitycoalitionthatwoulddomuchtoimprovethequalityofdailylife.(42)Lastly,itmaybethatfrankandopenengagementwithissuesofbathroomaccessandtheneedforeliminationcouldleadustofindwaystocometotermswithandevenappreciatethisdimensionofexperience.InhisprefacetotheGermantranslationofJohnBourke"sScatologicalRitesofAllNations,Freudcommentedthattheembarrassmentofcivilizedpeopleaboutanythingthatremindsthemoftheiranimaloriginsleadsthemtoconcealfromeachothertheirexcretoryandsexualfunctionsandalsotowithholdfromthem"theattentionandcarewhich[they]mightclaimas...integratingcomponent[s]oftheiressentialbeing."(43)Whatwoulditmeantoexperienceexcretaaspartsofourselvesthatenableustoliveandgrowratherthanasaffrontstoourself-sufficientindividualitythatviolatethebordersofthesharplydefinedbody?Whatwoulditmeantoseethemassymbolsoffertilityandnotjustdeathanddecay,toviewourbodilyorificesasplaceswherewegoouttomeettheworld,ratherthanassitesofpotentialpollutionfromwithoutorwithin?(44)InthewordsofAlexanderKira,authorofaclassicworkonthebathroom,couldwe"acceptthedemandsofthisphysiologicalneedwiththesame,grace,humor,andpossiblyenjoymentthatweacceptourotherphysiologicalneeds?"(45)Issuchagoalpossible?Certainlynotunlessfeministsbreakthesilencearoundeliminationaswehavebrokensomanyothers. Notes(1.)Foucault,Michel,TheHistoryofSexuality,VolumeI:AnIntroduction,trans.RobertHurley(NewYork:VintageBooks,1978),32,35.(2.)Brown,NormanO.,LifeAgainstDeath:ThePsychoanalyticalMeaningofHistory(Middletown,CT:WesleyanUniversityPress,1959),180.(3.)Chess,Simone,AlisonKafer,JessiQuizar,MattieUdoraRichardson,"CallingAllRestroomRevolutionaries,"inThat"sRevolting:QueerStrategiesforResistingAssimilation,ed.,MatildaakaMattBernsteinSycamore(Brooklyn:SoftSkullpress,2004),189.Cf.Kafer,Alison,"""ItAin"tMyRevolutionIfItAin"tAccessible":TowardaPoliticsofAccess"(unpublishedmanuscript,2007),232-35.(4.)Talev,Margaret,""PottyParity"IsRevisitedasHouseGetsItsFirstFemaleSpeaker,"McClatchyNewspapers,December21,2006.(5.)Ibid.(6.)Dershowitz,AlanM.,TheAbuseExcuseandOtherCop-outs,SobStories,andEvasionsofResponsibility(Boston,NewYork,Toronto,andLondon:LittleBrownandCompany,1994),284;Rhode,DeborahL.,JusticeandGender:SexDiscriminationandtheLaw(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1989),24.(7.)Cooper,PatriciaandRuthOldenziel,"CherishedClassifications:BathroomsandtheConstructionofGender/RaceonthePennsylvaniaRailroadDuringWorldWarII,"FeministStudies25(Spring1999),17.(8.)Edwards,JuliaandLindaMcKie,"Women"sPublicToilets:ASeriousIssuefortheBodyPolitic,"inEmbodiedPractices:FeministPerspectivesontheBody,ed.,KathyDavis(London,ThousandOaks,CA,andNewDelhi:SAGEPublications,1997),136-38.(9.)BetterBladderandBowelControl,ASpecialHealthReportfromHarvardMedicalSchool(Cambridge,2007),4,5,7,8;Watson,Stephanie,TheUrinarySystem(Westport,CT,andLondon:GreenwoodPress,2004),21,22,120-21,152,170.(10.)Weisman,LeslieKanes,DiscriminationbyDesign:AFeministCritiqueoftheMan-MadeEnvironment(UrbanaandChicago:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1992),2;Penner,Barbara,"AWorldofUnmentionableSuffering:Women"sPublicConveniencesinVictorianLondon,"JournalofDesignHistory14/1(2001):37.(11.)Weisman,DiscriminationbyDesign,1,10.Quotationonp.1.(12.)SeeChessetal.,"CallingAllRestroomRevolutionaries,"foranaccountofonelocalactivistgroup.(13.)Anthony,KathrynH.andMeghanDufresne,"PottyParityinPerspective:GenderandFamilyIssues inPlanningandDesigningPublicRestrooms,"JournalofPlanningLiterature21/3(February2007):268,278.Theprecisedefinitionofpottyparityvariesfromstatetostate.(14.)Banzhof,JohnF.II,"FinalFrontierfortheLaw?"TheNationalLawJournal,April18,1990.Accessedonhttp://www.banzhof.net/docs/potty_parity.html.(15.)Gershenson,Olga,"PottyPoliticsonCampus:DebatesOverUnisexBathrooms"(unpublishedmanuscript,2005),1.(16.)Bradley,Matt,""PottyParity"AimstoRemedyLongLines,"ChristianScienceMonitor,January19,2006.Availableonhttp://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0119/pl6s01-lihc.htm.(17.)Alongseriesofexchangesonthewomen"sstudieslistserve(wmst-1@listserve.umd.edu)inFebruary2007exploredsomeoftheseissues,sometimesinsurprisinglyprejudicialways.(18.)Deuteronomy23:12-4.(19.)Inglis,David,ASociologicalHistoryofExcretoryExperience:DefecatoryMannersandToiletryTechnology,MellenStudiesinSociology,Vol.30(Lewiston,Queenstown,Lampeter:EdwinMellenPress,2000),1,3,65-6.(20.)Corbin,Alain,TheFoulandtheFragrant:OdorandtheFrenchSocialImagination(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1986),24.(21.)Elias,Norbert,TheCivilizingProcess:TheHistoryofManners,Vol.I,trans.EdmundJephcott(NewYork:UrizenBooks,1978),131.(22.)Corbin,TheFoulandtheFragrant,20,89.(23.)Inglis,ASociologicalHistoryofExcretoryExperience,48-49,161.Ontheissueoflinguisticinvisibility,cf.Corbin,TheFoulandtheFragrant,61andAlexanderKira,TheBathroom,newandexpandeded.(NewYork:VikingPress,1976),99-100.(24.)Inglis,ASociologicalHistoryofExcretoryExperience,243.(25.)Elias,TheCivilizingProcess,Vol.I,xiii.(26.)Freud,Sigmund,"TheExcretoryFunctionsinPsychoanalysisandFolklore,"CollectedPapers,Vol.5,ed.JamesStrachey(London:HogarthPress,1950),90;andCivilizationanditsDiscontents,trans.JamesStrachey(NewYork:WWNorton,1961),47.n.1.(27.)Elias,TheCivilizingProcess,Vol.I,80,82,141,190;TheCivilizingProcess:StateFormationandCivilization,Vol.II,trans.EdmundJephcott(Oxford:BasilBlackwell1982[1939]),230,233. (28.)Goffman,Erving,ThePresentationofSelfinEverydayLife(GardenCity,NY:DoubledayAnchorBooks,1959),56;SusanWendell,TheRejectedBody:FeministPhilosophicalReflectionsonDisability(NewYorkandLondon:Routledge,1996),89.(29.)Goffman,ThePresentationofSelf,55,56,112,121,229.(30.)Cahill,Spencer,WilliamDistler,CynthiaLachowitz,AndreaMeany,RoynTarallsandTeenaWillard,"MeanwhileBackstage:PublicBathroomsandtheInteractionOrder,"UrbanLife14:1(April1985):36-9.(31.)Douglas,Mary,NaturalSymbols:ExplorationsinCosmology(NewYork:VintageBooks,1973),12,100,101;PurityandDanger:AnAnalysisoftheConceptsofPollutionandTaboo(LondonandNewYork:Routledge,1966),121.ThequotationisfromNaturalSymbols,101.(32.)ThislinehasbeenvariouslyattributedtoanumberofdifferentearlyChristianthinkers.(33.)Corbin,TheFoulandtheFragrant,213.(34.)Freud,Sigmund,"OnTransformationsofInstinctasExemplifiedinAnalEroticism."TheStandardEditionoftheCompletePsychologicalWorksofSigmundFreud,Vol.IX,ed.,JamesStrachey(London:TheHogarthPressandtheInstituteofPsychoanalysis,1959),130.(35.)Grosz,VolatileBodies:TowardaCorporealFeminism(BloomingtonandIndianapolis:IndianaUniversityPress,1994),203-6.(36.)Cahilletal.,"MeanwhileBackstage,"37,39.(37.)Chessetal.,in"CallingAllRestroomRevolutionaries,"callthis"pee-privilege,"189.(38.)Longhurst,Robyn,Bodies:ExploringFluidBoundaries(LondonandNewYork:Routledge,2001),4,23.(39.)Williams,SimonJ.andGillianBendelow,TheLivedBody:SociologicalThemes,EmbodiedIssues(LondonandNewYork:Routledge,1998),208;cf.Thomas,Carol,"The"Disabled"Body,"RealBodies:ASociologicalIntroduction,ed.,MaryEvansandEllieLee(NewYork:Palgrave,2002),72.(40.)WilliamsandBendelow,TheLivedBody,175makethispointaboutsleep,butIamstruckbyitsequalapplicabilitytoelimination.(41.)Banks,TaunyaLovell,"ToiletsasaFeministIssue:ATrueStory,"BerkeleyWomen"sLawJournal6/2(1990):284.(42.)Chessetal.,"CallingAllRestroomRevolutionaries,"192-93.(43.)Freud,"TheExcretoryFunctions,"88-9. (44.)Foraradicallydifferentvisionofthenatureofelimination,seeBakhtin,Mikhail,RabelaisandhisWorld,trans.HeleneIswolsky(N.p.:MIT,1969;IndianaUniversityPress,1984),esp.26;alsoMiller,WilliamIan,TheAnatomyofDisgust(Cambridge,MA,andLondon:HarvardUniversityPress,1997),89.(45.)Kira,TheBathroom,105....attheendoftherowonefreetoiletoozesfromunderitscrookeddoor,whilearowofwearywomencarryingpackagesandbabieswaitandwaitandwaittodowhatonlythedeadfindunnecessary.MargePiercy,"TothePayToilet"